When it comes to science, culture and new discoveries there is no end to the knowledge that we can pursue. Each new discovery or idea launches investigations into multiple areas and opens new doors that everyone excitedly explores. There is nothing more fascinating to pursuers of knowledge than watching all the pieces fall together to form a bigger picture. This not only provides explanations but also allows humans to progress in many ways.
David Deutsch names this process the beginning of infinity as each discovery leads to a new pursuit in a seemingly neverending way. This is an exciting concept and one which is worth understanding.
In this book summary readers will discover:
- Where knowledge comes from
- Why ideas and DNA are similar
- The problem with decision making in groups
- How anything is possible
Key lesson one: Where knowledge comes from
Contrary to what empiricists believe, knowledge does not only stem from observations. If it did, we would not know as much as we do about the planets we have yet to explore in our solar system. It is not necessary to experience something to gain knowledge about it. In fact, the simple truth is we do not sit back and only passively observe, we also create knowledge.
If observation were the only way to believe something, how did we come to the conclusion that the earth is rotating or that the sun is still present on a cloudy day? This does not mean that experience is not important. It just means that it is not the source of all knowledge. The actual source of knowledge comes from theorising and conjecturing. These in turn are tested by observation and experiments.
Another way in which knowledge is formed comes from our culture. Creating and receiving ideas are the backbone of all cultures. All you have to do is consider how stories and traditions are passed on to people. These people go on to retell these to the next generation and they are passed on yet again. In this way, cultures consist of memes or ideas that spread from person to person. Examples of these are language and even certain music styles that a group of people enjoy. Depending on whether these memes change over time actually decides whether a culture is static or dynamic. Static cultures tend to remain unchanged and most likely also have customs and laws which prevent them from changing too much or too quickly. There is no room for new ideas when there is obedience to rules – much like North Korea. Dynamic cultures, however, are founded on rational memes. This means that memes can be altered through critical and rational thought and passed on. It can be changed and therefore does not remain stagnant.
Knowledge development is also not always a quick process. It can develop incrementally over time until it becomes universal. Just how the alphabet was eventually formed after a series of developments in writing systems. Originally, pictograms were used. This was followed by groups of pictograms to form words. Finally, the alphabet came about as a way of combining symbols into any meaning. This sudden improvement led to the alphabet being adopted quickly. The reach of this system expanded and thus became universal creating new forms of knowledge.
The best part about knowledge overall is that it makes human life significant. Other than the knowledge we acquire, what more do we contribute, in the grand scheme of things, to our lives on this planet? Humans actually changed the earth with their knowledge. Just consider that there was no science and technology before humans. Our ancestors adapted by using the knowledge gained in their daily rituals in order to survive. This has secured our significance and our continued contribution to mankind in the form of knowledge.
Key lesson two: Why ideas and DNA are similar
DNA is important for a variety of reasons but none so fundamental as carrying vital information. This information is passed on when it is replicated. In this manner, DNA and ideas are similar. They spread by replication.
Evolution is dependent on replication. An organism inherits the genes necessary for its survival and passes them on to its offspring. When it comes to ideas, they also spread in a similar manner. Think about things like scientific theories or language or even religion – they are all passed along from one generation to the next when the ideas are shared and thus replicated.
The only difference between DNA and ideas is that ideas can only be replicated if they are expressed. Genes can remain dormant and still be passed on. Ideas, however, cannot be passively transmitted to others. It has to be expressed in some form so that it can be picked up by others. Just think about all the great ideas you have picked up on from something you have seen, heard or read about? Once you have implemented it, the chances of your inspiring someone else is also high. It’s also why scientists have conferences and publish their work to share their findings with others. It will be passed on to others and inspire other people to build upon the idea. This is how ideas work and are replicated in all areas of study.
Key lesson three: The problem with decision making in groups
You probably want to know what decision making has got to do with knowledge but if you carefully consider it, decision making leads to options. Furthermore, whenever posed with decisions, new options are also generated which could be a crucial factor in gaining knowledge and progress.
Kenneth Arrow, an economist, did something astounding in 1951 that earned him the Nobel Peace Prize. He put forth a theory that stated that joint decision making is necessarily irrational. He used the election process as an example and stated that five principles need to be fulfilled in order for groups to make rational and democratic decisions that will fill the needs of the people. The study, which is now known as the General impossibility theorem, showed that it was impossible to satisfy all five principles.
As much as common sense would lead us to weigh up the evidence of each option whenever we make a decision it also limits us to believe that those are the only options.
Thus it is imperative to understand that there are always other options and they are waiting to be explored. You have to keep an open mind and try to see what others may have missed. There has to also be a realization that you can only make a decision if you have all the information. If you cannot decide, it is possible that you do not yet possess the knowledge necessary to do so. This is why it is important to share knowledge and ideas with others. In doing so, new options will be discovered.
Key lesson four: How anything is possible
The term anything is possible is thrown around a lot but there is a lot of truth in those three words. Thomas Malthus, for example, said in 1789 that humanity would stop progressing in the nineteenth century. He based his prediction on exponential population growth and the planet’s capacity to produce food. Malthus did not consider one simple fact, that we have the ability to progress. There was no way for him to know in 1789 things that humans did not discover yet.
Likewise, we cannot write off anything because we do not know what has yet to be discovered in the future. Furthermore, new discoveries are not the end because future discoveries cannot be predicted. Albert Einstein built his theory from Isaac Newton’s laws which seemed pretty concrete at the time. In fact, most theorems in physics contradict another – it’s the basis of quantum theory and the theory of special relativity. We cannot predict which will prove true because it is all based on a future discovery that is yet to happen!.
There is also an important distinction to be made between prophecy and prediction. The former does not have any scientific basis, however irrespective, they both cannot hold true because nothing in the future is known for certain. Even a prediction would be based on current information and not necessarily take into account any future changes.
This only proves that anything is possible and it makes it all the more exciting as we discover new ideas.
The key takeaway from The Beginning of Infinity is:
There is literally no end to the pursuit of knowledge. With each new scientific discovery, others are introduced. Knowledge is not only derived from simple observation. There needs to be critical thought and conjecture which can be tested. With each bit of knowledge gained, the human race progresses. It is what has allowed us to survive for this long and is also what gives us hope for the future. There is no real way to predict the future because we do not know what we have yet to discover. This makes anything possible the future infinitely bigger than we can ever imagine.
How can I implement the lessons learned in The Beginning of Infinity:
The biggest lesson to be learned and implemented from this book is to always keep an open mind. If we accept that anything is possible, there should always be an option worth exploring that will allow you to achieve the seemingly impossible. This is by no means denying your present but simply accepting that the only reason you cannot achieve something currently is because you do not yet possess the knowledge to do so.
